Ethnic and Ethno Pharmacology
" The ultimate measure of a man is not where he
stands in moments of comfort, but where he stands
at times of challenge and controversy."
Martin Luther King Jr.
Prepared by Dr. Josepha Campinha-Bacote
Overview
Assemi, M., Cullander, C., & Hudmon, K. S. (2004). Implementation and Evaluation of Cultural Competency Training for Pharmacy Students. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 38(5), 781-786.
Assemi, M., and Cullander. C. (2003). Cultural Competency in Pharmaceutical Care Delivery: A Training Template for a One-Day Pharmacy Student Elective Course. San Francisco, CA: Center For the Health Professions, University of California.
http://www.futurehealth.ucsf.edu/pdf_files/Assemi_Cullander%202003%20Curricula-final.pdf
Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. (2005). Ethnic Disparities in the Burden and Treatment t of Asthma. Reston, VA: Author.
Allen, M. (1994). The dilemma for women of color in clinical trials. Journal of Women’s Medical Association, 49(4), 105-109.
Bazaldua, O. and Sias, J. (2004). Cultural Competence: A Pharmacy Perspective. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 17(3), 160-166.
Berger, B. A. (2005). Communication Skills for Pharmacists: Building Relationships, Improving Patient Care (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Pharmacists Association.
Bjornsson, T., Wagner, J., Donahue, S., Harper, D., Karim, A., Khouri, M., Murphy, W., Roman, K., Schneck, D., Sonnichsen, D., Stalker, D., Wise, S., Dombey, S. LoewA, C. ( 2003). A Review and Assessment of Potential Sources of Ethnic Differences in Drug Responsiveness. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 43: 943-967.
Bosch, F., & Banos, J. (2002). Religious beliefs of patients and caregivers as a barrier to the pharmacologic control of cancer pain. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 72(2), 107-111.
Burchard, EG, et al. (2003). The importance of race and ethnic background in biomedical research and clinical practice. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(12, 1170-5.
Burroughs, V., Maxey, R., & Levy, R. (2002). Racial and ethnic differences in response to medicines: Towards individualized treatment. Journal of the National Medical Association, 94:1-26.
Campinha-Bacote, J. (2007). Becoming Culturally Competent in Ethnic Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 45(9).
Campinha-Bacote, J. (2003). The Process of Cultural Competence in the Delivery of Healthcare Services. Cincinnati, OH: Transcultural C.A.R.E. Associates.
Campinha-Bacote, J. (1995). Ethnic Pharmacology. ONA Review, 69(6), 9-10.
Chen, M. (2006). Ethnic or racial differences revisited: impact of dosage regimen and dosage form on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 45(10):957-64.
Cuellar, L. and Fitzsimmons, D. (2003). Raising pharmacists' cultural awareness. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 60, 285-6.
Cultured-Med Website. Jacquelyn Coughlan developed a webpage on this website entitled, “Culture and Ethnopharmacology." http://culturedmed.sunyit.edu/bib/ethnopharmacology/index.html
Cordell, G. A., & Colvard, M. D. (2005). Some Thoughts on the Future of Ethnopharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 100(1-2), 5-14.
Edwards, L. (1994). Acceptability of foreign data: genetic, cultural and environmental differences -- do they matter? In: S. Walker, & C. Lumley, & N. McAuslane N, (Eds). Relevance of Ethnic Factors in the Clinical Evaluation of. Medicines. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1994:3-11.
Davidhizar, R. (2002). Strategies for providing culturally appropriate pharmaceutical care to the Hispanic patient. Hospital Pharmacy, 37(5), 505-510.
Diggs, A., and Berger, B. (2004). Cultural Competence: Overcoming Bias U.S. Pharm., 2004, 29(6), 94-97.
Giger, J. and Davidhizar, R. (2003). Transcultural Nursing. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book (includes ethnic pharmacology for each ethnic group).
Hahn, BA. (1995). Children’s health: Racial and ethnic differences in the use of prescription medications. Pediatrics, 95(5), 727-732.
Hines, S. with consultants Frate, D., Kountz, D., Levy, R., Strickland, T., & Williams, R. (2000). Intelligent Prescribing in Diverse Populations. Patient Care, 34(9), 135-149.
Kalow, W., & Bertilsson, L (1994). Interethnic factors affecting drug response. Adv. Drug Res. 25: 2-53.
Kudzma, EC. (1999). Culturally competent drug administration. American Journal of Nursing, 99(8), 46-51.
Larsen E. Exclusion of certain groups from clinical research. Image. 1994;26:185-190.
Levy RA. Ethnic and Racial Differences in Response to Medicines: Preserving Individualized Therapy in Managed Pharmaceutical Programs. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council; 1993.
Levy, R., and Polatsek, J. (2002). Genetic Variations in Response to Medications: Looking at the Implications for Minority Elders. Healthcare and Aging, 9(1).
Matthews, HW. (1995). Racial, ethnic and gender differences in response to medicines. Drug Metabol Drug Interact., 12:77-91
Morrison, A. and Levy, R. (2004). Toward Individualized Pharmaceutical Care of East Asians. Pharmacogenomics, 5(6), 673-689.
Morrison, RS., Wallenstein, S., Natale, DK, Senzel, RS, and Huang, LL. (2000). “We Don’t Carry That” – Failure of pharmacies in predominately nonwhite neighborhoods to stock opioid analgesics. New England Journal of Medicine, 343: 1023-1026.
Munoz, C. and Hilgenberg C. (2005). Ethnopharmacology: Understanding how ethnicity can affect drug response is essential to providing culturally competent care. American Journal of Nursing, 105(8): 40-48.
http://www.nursingcenter.com/prodev/ce_article.asp?tid=595449
O’Connell, M., Korner, E., Rickles, N., and Sias, J. (2007). Cultural competency in health care and its implications for pharmacy. Pharmacotherapy, 27(7):1062–1079.
http://www.pharmacotherapy.org/pdf/free/Pharm2707_ACCP-CulturalComp.pdf
Popa-Lisseanu, M., Greisinger, A., Richardson, M., O'Malley, K., Janssen, N.,
Marcus, D., Tagore, J. and Suarez-Almazor, M. (2005).
Determinants of treatment
adherence in
ethnically
diverse, economically
disadvantaged patients with rheumatic disease.
Journal of Rheumatology, 32(5),
913-919.
Purnell, L. & Paulanka, B. (2003). Transcultural Health Care: A Culturally Competent Approach. PA: F.A. Davis Publishers (Chapters include ethnic groups with a section on the pharmacological variations for each group).
Reyes, C., Van de Putte, L., Falcon, A, Levy, R. (2004). Genes, Culture and Medicine: Bridging Gaps in Treatment For Hispanic Americans. Washington, DC: National Alliance For Hispanic Health. http://www.npcnow.org/resources/PDFs/HispanicReportFINAL.pdf
Salerno, E. (2005). Drug news: Racial and ethnic drug differences. Pharmacology Update, Volume 40, August 2005, p. 4.
Satel, S. (2000). PC, MD: How Political Correctness is Corrupting Medicine. Washington, DC: AEI Press.
Schwartz, RS. (2001). Racial profiling in medical research. New England Journal of Medicine, 344(18), 1392-1393.
Shah, M., King, S. and
Patel, A. (2004).
Intercultural Disposition and
Communication Competence of Future Pharmacists. American Journal of
Pharmaceutical Education, 68(5):article
111.
(link)
Sias, J. (2004). Cultural competency in pharmacy practice. In: Schumock GT, Brundage DM, Richardson MM, et al, eds. Pharmacotherapy Self-Assessment Program. Kansas City: American College of Clinical Pharmacy, 2004:219-52.
Solus, JF., et al. (2004). Genetic Variation in Eleven Phase I Drug Metabolism Genes in an Ethnically Diverse Population. Pharmacogenomics, 5(7), 895-931.
Steiner, J. F. (1994). Topics in clinical pharmacology: Racial and ethnic variations in drug response. American Academy of Physician Assistants, 7(10), 754.
Svensson E. (1989). Representation of American blacks in clinical trials of new drugs. JAMA. 1989; 261:263-265.
Wessling, S. (2007). Ethnopharmacology: What Nurses Need to Know. Minority Nurse. http://www.minoritynurse.com/features/health/110207c.html
Westberg, S. M., & Sorensen, T. D. (2005). Pharmacy-related Health Disparities Experienced by Non-English-Speaking Patients: Impact of Pharmaceutical Care. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association, 45(1), 48-54.
Westberg, S. , Bumgardner, M. and Lind, P. (2005). Enhancing Cultural Competence in a College of Pharmacy Curriculum. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 69(5), Article 82, 1-9.
Wick, J. (1996). Culture, ethnicity, and medications. J Am Pharm Assoc., 36:556-564.
Wood, AJ. (2001). Racial differences in response to drugs – pointers to genetic differences. New England Journal of Medicine, 344(18), 1394-1396.
Zhou, HH & Liu, ZQ. (2000). Ethnic difference in drug metabolism. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med., 38:899-903.
Ethnic Psychopharmacology
Baker, F., Bell, C. (1999). Issues in the Psychiatric Treatment of African Americans. Psychiatry Services, 50(3) 362-368.
Bailey, R. (2003). Atypical Psychotropic Medications and Their Adverse Effects: A Review for the African-American Primary Care Physician. Journal of the National Medical Association, 95(2),137-44.
Campinha-Bacote, J. (2008). Ethnic Psychopharmacology: An Overlooked Area of Cultural Competence in Mental Health Care. Synergy, Edition No. 1 (Publication of the Multicultural Mental Health Australia -MCMHA)
http://www.mmha.org.au/mmha-products/synergy/edition-1-2008-2
Campinha-Bacote, J. (2007). Becoming Culturally Competent in Ethnic Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 45(9).
Campinha-Bacote J. (2002). “Ethnic psychopharmacology: A neglected area of cultural competence in mental health.” In J. Campinha-Bacote, (Ed), Readings and Resources in Transcultural Health Care and Mental Health (13th edition). OH: Transcultural C.A.R.E. Associates.
Campinha-Bacote J. (1998). African Americans. In L. Purnell & B. Paulanka (Eds). Transcultural Health Care: A Culturally Competent Approach. PA: F.A. Davis Publishers.
Chen, J. , Barron, C., Lin, K. and Chung, H. (2002). Prescribing medication for Asians with mental disorders. Western Journal of Medicine, 176(4), 271-274.
Dawkins K. (1996). The Interaction of Ethnicity, Socio-cultural Factors, and Gender in Clinical Psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacology Bull, 32(2): 283-289.
DelBello MP, Soutuillo CA, Ochsner JE
et al. (1999). Racial differences in the treatment of adolescents with bipolar
disorder. New Research 379. Presented at the 152nd annual meeting of
the American Psychiatric Association, May 18. Washington, D.C.
D’Mello DA, Lyon DE (1999). Ethnic variance in the treatment of acute mania.
New Research 579. Presented at the 152nd annual meeting of the American
Psychiatric Association, May 19. Washington, D.C.
Edmond H. (1998). Transcultural psychopharmacology: Present & future.
Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52 (Suppl), S185-S187.
Frackiewicz E, Stramek J, Herrera J, et al. (1997). Ethnicity and antipsychotic response. Ann Pharmacother, 1997:31:1360-1369
Gaw A. (2001). Cross-Cultural Psychopharmacology. In: Albert Gaw (Ed.). Concise Guide to Cross-Cultural Psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishers, Inc.
Harrell JP, Marcellus MM & Kalu J. (1998). Racism, Stress and Disease. In African American Mental Health: Theory. Research and Intervention by RL Jones. Ed, Hampton, VA: Cobbs & Henry Publishers.
Herra JM, Lawson WB, & Sramek JJ. (1999). Cross Cultural Psychiatry. John Willey & Sons, Ltd.
Herbeck, D., West, J., Ruditis, I., Duffy, F., Fitek, D., Bell, C., Snowden, L. (2004). Variations in use of second-generation antipsychotic medication by race among adult psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Service, 55 (6), 667-684.
Knudsen, H., Ducharme, L., & Roman, P. (2007). Racial and ethnic disparities in SSRI availability in substance abuse treatment. Psychiatric Services, 58 (1), 55-62
Kilbourne, A., Pincus, H. (2006). Brief Reports: Patterns of Psychotropic Medication Use by Race Among Veterans With Bipolar Disorder. Psychiatry Service, 57 (1),123-126.
Kuno, E. and Rothbard, A. (2004). Racial disparities in antipsychotic patterns for patients with
schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159 (4), 567-572.
Lam, Y., Jann, M., Chang, W., Yu, H., Lin, S., Chen, H. and Davis, C. (1995). Intra- and inter-ethnic variability in reduced haloperidol to haloperidol ratio. J. Clin Pharmacology 35:128-136, 1995.
Lawson, WB. (1998). Psychopharmacology and African American Mental Health. In RL Jones (Ed), African American Mental Health: Theory, Research and Intervention Hampton, VA: Cobbs & Henry Publishers.
Lesser IM, Smith M., Poland RE & Lin KM. (1997). Psychopharmacology and ethnicity. In S. Friedman (Ed). Treating Anxiety Across Cultures. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 99-224.
Lin KM, and Poland RE. (2000). “Ethnicity, culture and psychopharmacology.” In F. Bloom & D. Kupfer, (Eds). Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, NY, NY: Raven Press 2000: 1907-1917.
Lin, KM., Cheung, F. (1999). Mental Health Issues for Asian Americans. Psychiatry Services, 50(6), 774-780
Marin, H., and Escobar, J. (2001). Special issues in psychopharmacological management of Hispanic Americans. Psychopharmacol Bull, 35 (4): 197-212.
Miskimen, T., Marin, H. and Escobar, J. (2003). Psychopharmacological Research Ethics: Special Issues Affecting US Ethnic Minorities. Psychopharmacology, 171(1), 98-104.
Opler, L. Ramirez, P., Dominguez, L., Fox, M., and Johnson, P. (2004). , Rethinking Medication Prescribing Practices in an Inner-City Hispanic Mental Health Clinic. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10(2), 134-140.
Otway, C., and Bowskill, D. (2005). Prescribing for patients where English is not a first language: A pilot study. NursePrescribing, 3(3), 110-114.
Pi, E., and Simpson, G. (2006). Cross-cultural psychopharmacology: A current clinical perspective. American Psychiatry Association, 56 (1), 31-33.
Ramirez, LF, (1996). Ethnicity and Psychopharmacology in Latin America. Mt. Sinai’ J Med. 63: 5-6, 330-331.
Rey, J. (2006). The Interface of Multiculturalism
and Psychopharmacology. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 19(6),
379-385.
Ruiz P. (2000). Ethnicity and psychopharmacology. Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 19. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Ruiz P, Varner RV, Small DR, et al. (1999). Ethnic Differences in the Neuroleptic Treatment of Schizophrenia. Psychiatry Quarterly 70:163-170.
Ruiz, P. (1998). The Role of Cultural in Psychiatric Care. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:1763-1765.
Strickland, TL, Stein, R Lin Km. Risby E, Fong R (1997). The pharmacologic treatment of anxiety and depression in African Americans. Archives of Family Medicine, 6 (July/Aug), 371-374.
Wick J. (1996). Culture, Ethnicity, and Medications. J Am Pharm Assoc. 1996; 36:556-564.
Cardiovascular Medication
Angus, D., Linde-Zwirble, W., Tam, S., Ghali, J., Sabolinski, M., Villagra,V., Winkelmayer, W., and Worcel, M. (2005). Cost-Effectiveness of Fixed-Dose Combination of Isosorbide Dinitrate and Hydralazine Therapy for Blacks with Heart Failure. Circulation 112: 3745-3753.
Bakris G, Mangrum A, Copley JB, et al. Effect of calcium channel or ß-blockade on the progression of diabetic nephropathy in African Americans. Hypertension. 1997:29:744-750.
Carter B, Frohlich E, Elliott W, et al. Selected factors that influence responses to antihypertensives. Arch Fam Med. 1994;3:528-535.
Exner, DV et al. Lesser response to angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor therapy in blacks as compared to white patients with ventricular dysfunction. New England Journal of Medicine, 2001; 344(18); 1351-7.
Ferdinand, K. (2006). The isosorbide-hydralazine story: Is there a case for race-based cardiovascular medicine? The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 8(3), 156-158.
Flack, JM, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of eplerenone and losartan in hypertensive black and whiter patients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2003; 41(7); 1148-55.
Freis ED. Age and antihypertensive drugs (hydrochlorothiazide, bendroflumethiazide, nadolol and captopril). Am J Cardiol. 1998; 61:117-121.
Hall WD, Reed J, Flack J, et al. ISHIB Investigators Group. Comparison of the efficacy of dihydropyridine calcium blockers in African American patients with hypertension. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:2029-2034.
Hall WD. A rational approach to the treatment of hypertension in special populations. Am Fam Phys. 1999;60:156-162.
Hoerger T, Bala M, Bray J, et al. Treatment patterns and distribution of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in treatment-eligible United States adults. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82: 61-65.
Kudzma, EC. (2001). Cultural competence: Cardiovascular medications. Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing, 16(4), 152-160, 169.
Jafar, TH, et al. (2003). Ethnic subgroup differences in hypertension in Pakistan. Journal of Hypertension, 21(5), 905-12.
Jamerson K, DeQuattro V. The impact of ethnicity on response to antihypertensive therapy. Am J Med. 1996;101(suppl 3A):22S-32S.
Marsh JC, Chowdry J, Parry-Jones N, et al. Study of the association between cytochromes P450 2D6 and 2E1 genotypes and the risk of drug and chemical induced idiosyncratic aplastic anemia. Br J Haematol. 1999;104:266-270.
Materson B, Reda D, Cushman W, et al. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group on antihypertensive agents. Single drug therapy for hypertension in men. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:914-921.
McDowell, S. Coleman, J. and Ferner, R. (2006). Systematic review and meta-analysis of ethnic differences in risks of adverse reactions to drugs used in cardiovascular medicine. BMJ, 332(7551):1177-81
Moser M, Lunn J. Responses to captopril and hydrochlorothiazide in black patients with hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1982;32:307-312.
Pablos-Mendez A, Mayeux R, Ngai C, et al. Association of apo E polymorphism with plasma lipid levels in a multiethnic elderly population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:3534-3541.
Preston R, Materson B, Reda D, et al. Age-race subgroup compared with renin profile as predictor of blood pressure response to antihypertensive therapy. JAMA. 1998;280:1168-1172.
Richardson, AD., and Piepho, RW. Effect of race on hypertension and antihypertensive therapy. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000; 38:75-79.
Robbins D, Welty T, Wang W, et al. Plasma lipids and lipoprotein concentrations among American Indians: comparison with the US population. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1996;7:188-195.
Schaefer, BM, et al. Gender, ethnicity, and genes in cardiovascular disease. Part 2: Implications for pharmacotherapy. Heart Disease 2003: 5(3): 202-14.
Sowinski KM, Burles BS, Johnson JA. Pharmacodynamics and drug action: racial differences in sensitivity to the negative chronotropic effects of propranolol in healthy men. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1995;57:678-683.
Topics in minority health. Health beliefs and compliance with prescribed medication for hypertension among black women-New Orleans, 1985-86. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1990;39:701-704.
Tsuritani I, Ikai E, Date T, et al. Polymorphism in ALDH2-genotype in Japanese men and the alcohol-blood pressure relationship. Am J Hypertens. 1995;8:1053-1059.
Weir M, Chrysant SG, McCarron D, et al. Influence of race and dietary salt on the antihypertensive efficacy of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or a calcium channel antagonist in salt-sensitive hypertensives. Hypertension. 1998;31:1088-1096.
Xie, HG., Kim, RB., Wood, AJ., and Stein, CM. Molecular basis of ethnic differences in drug metabolism. The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2001; 41:815-85.
Yu L, Qiu S, Genest J. Abnormal regulation of the LDL-R and HMG CoA reductase genes in subjects with familial hypercholesterolemia with the "French Canadian Mutation." Atherosclerosis. 1996;124:103-117.
Yu CM, Chan TY, Tsoi WC, et al. Heparin therapy in the Chinese -- lower doses are required. Q J Med. 1997;90:535-543.
Yue QY, Iselius L, Sawe J. Indices and graphical approaches for the detection of interindividual and interethnic variations in codeine metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;44:239-244.
Zhou H, Koshakji R, Silberstein D, et al. Racial differences in drug response: Altered sensitivity to and clearance of propranolol in men of Chinese descent as compared with American whites. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:565-570
Cultural Competency in Pharmaceutical Care Delivery
http://www.futurehealth.ucsf.edu/pdf_files/Assemi_Cullander%202003%20Curricula-final.pdf
A training template for a one-day pharmacy student elective course.
American Association of Colleges
of Pharmacy
Contains a list of cultural competency resources for pharmacists
and other health professionals.
http://www.aacp.org/site/page.asp?TRACKID=&VID=1&CID=1181&DID=6751
Cultural Competency in Pharmaceutical Care Delivery
A training template for a one-day pharmacy student elective course.
http://www.futurehealth.ucsf.edu/pdf_files/Assemi_Cullander%202003%20
Curricula-final.pdf
Cultural Competence in Pharmacy Practice
An article about the role cultural competence plays in pharmacy practice.
Summary:
http://www.nmafaculty.org/news/cultural.htm
Full-text:
http://www.ajpe.org/legacy/pdfs/aj660214.pdf
A Multicultural Approach to Providing Pharmacy
Services
http://www.ascp.com/public/pubs/tcp/1999/nov/forum.shtml
Cultural Competence: Understanding that Inequalities
Exist
Part one in a series of articles.
https://www.uspharmacist.com/index.asp?show=article&page=8_1238.htm
Cultural Competence: Overcoming Bias -
The Pharmacist-Patient Relationship
Part two in a series of articles.
https://www.uspharmacist.com/index.asp?show=article&page=8_1286.htm
Intercultural Disposition and Communication
Competence
of Future Pharmacists
Article that examines the influence of an educational intervention
on pharmacy students’ intercultural disposition and perceived communication
competence.
http://www.ajpe.org/view.asp?art=aj6805111&pdf=yes
National Pharmaceutical Council
List over 100 articles on the topic of Ethnopharmacology
http://www.npcnow.org/resources/alphabetical.asp
Bourbonnais-Spear, N., Awad, R., Merali, Z., Maquin, P., Cal, V., & Arnason, J. T. (2007). Ethno- pharmacological investigation of plants used to treat susto, a folk illness. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 109, 380-387.
Garg, V. Hershey, C. (2003). The Top 10 Herbal Therapies : Findings, Cautions About These Natural Remedies. Postgraduate Medicine Online. August 2003.
Scott, G. and Elmer, G. (2002). Update on Natural Product-Drug Interaction. American Journal Health Syst Pharm., 59(4), 339-347.
Links
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Warnings on Dietary Supplements
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/ds-warn.html
Herbs Research Foundation
American Holistic Medical Association
National Center
for CAM.
http://nccam.nih.gov
Societies
International Society for Ethnopharmacology
American Society of Pharmacognosy
Collegium Internationale Neuro-Psychopharmacologicum
International Council for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Phytochemical Society of Europe
Society for Medicinal Plant Research
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Last Updated: May, 2008